The Third Actor: India's Quiet Ascent in Southeast Asia

Written in fall 2023 for a Politics of Southeast Asia course during my graduate studies in International Affairs. The paper argues that the dominant US-China binary in Southeast Asian geopolitics obscures a third and historically rooted actor: India. The argument begins in antiquity — with the Indianization of Southeast Asian kingdoms — and ends in the present, where India's Act East Policy and partnership-based approach gives it leverage neither superpower can replicate.

Legacy of Indianization: Unraveling Modern Political Connections in Southeast Asia

The United States and China’s influence in Southeast Asia is a topic that has been debated globally for decades. While several countries have “become suspicious of China’s supposed economic beneficence” and are displeased with the unsubtle political bullying, they are unwilling to submit to American pressure to look westward for support -- China’s economic influence trumps American military alliance capabilities (China’s Influence, The Economist). The effects of the BRI are also discussed at length, with concerns over the extent to which China is controlling the region -- economically and politically (Busbarat et al). Yet hidden under this supposed 2-way battle is a third actor that is less understood but rapidly gaining influence; India. It is not considered a “superpower” as yet, but cannot be deemed a small nation, as its economic, cultural, and political influence expands far beyond the region in question -- and thus demands recognition and research. 

As such, it is crucial to delve into the scope for Southeast Asian (SEA) relationships with India as the entire region rapidly grows in importance (although the West continually changes the baseline and narrative). This foray into strengthening geopolitical dynamics comes from a historical foundation -- beginning with the Indianization of Southeast Asian kingdoms. Thus, this article traces the trajectory of Indianization, followed by snapshots of connections between India and various nations in the region up to contemporary times, in order to provide insight into the potential for modern connections. 

Policy Insights

Recognizing the enduring influence of Indianization and subsequent historical connections enables a more informed approach to diplomatic engagements. India first began strategic outreach in 1991 with the Look East policy, followed by the more concrete 2014 Act East Policy (Grossman). Modern India’s move to counter Chinese (and western) influence in SEA has been increasing pace for the past several years, which has provided an opportunity for several states in the region that “distrust China” (Aljibe). While China is wary of the progress, SEA is “a central pillar to India’s own Indo-Pacific strategy,” and “India’s push into the region will only continue to gather momentum” (Aljibe). There is a “determination to continue bolstering regional ties despite potential geopolitical tensions” (Aljibe). In fact, India is focused on cooperation with SEA nations that wish to “maintain the rules-based international order and norms of behavior” as they mutually pursue development (Grossman). India clearly has leverage in the region as a result of its “partnership” approach. India can capitalize on historical connections to remind nations in the region of the similarities in values and goals for the future, thus enhancing their contemporary strategy in response to China and the West (Bhattacharya).

Framework

Historically, Southeast Asian nations have been “profoundly impacted by Indian, Chinese, Islamic, and then European civilizations,” shaping current political and cultural viewpoints to various degrees (Mishra). To frame the terminology, 

“Historian and archaeologist Pierre Manguin, describes the trajectories of historical narratives in Southeast Asia: “‘Indianization’ has never been a standardized paradigm; definitions have evolved with the passage of time and as the concept became entwined in multiple historicities, each one with its own different cultural background” (Bhattacharya). 

The Indianization of SEA was unique from western colonization in that nationstates adopted choice portions of Indian culture, creating a blend of structures (Coedes). While each developed in their own way, they “never lost the family resemblance that they owed to their common origin” (Coedes). 

Indonesia

One example is Indonesia, which has a clear cultural connection to India -- from Sanskrit influence to architectural similarities (Mishra). The fabric of Indonesia interweaves Hindu-Buddhist elements with indigenous ideas; folk art and dramas, especially in Bali, are often based on stories from Hindu great epics or folk tales (India-Indonesia, MEA). These were later supplemented by Islamic and European cultural layers, showcasing the depth of historical ties (India-Indonesia, MEA).  Beyond cultural similarities, Indonesia and India have a history of political alliances that have fostered contemporary relationships to a significant degree. 

The shared culture created a close relationship during the respective struggles for independence. Both national leaderships, led by Jawaharlal Nehru and President Sukarno, collaborated to support Asian independence (India-Indonesia, MEA). They later “laid the foundation of the Afro-Asian and Non-Aligned Movements at the Bandung Conference in 1955,” creating a preliminary political relationship that has lasted to this day (India-Indonesia, MEA). Indonesia is now India's second-largest trading partner in ASEAN; bilateral trade grew from US$ 6.9 billion in 2007-08 to US$ 19.03 billion in 2014-15 (India-Indonesia, MEA). Additionally, beyond the ongoing cultural exchange via classical arts and languages, large parts of the Indonesian population are Indian nationals or Indian-origin, contributing significantly to the economy and societal landscape as a whole (India-Indonesia, MEA). 

Thailand

Thailand is known for its cultural ties to India, with roots in Buddhist and Hindu tradition -- as Thai states formed, kingship was legitimized by drawing from “formulas and royal proclamations in the priestly language of the Brahmans,” many of which remain to this day (Mishra). Art and architecture developed distinctively, but merged indigenous sensibilities with Indian cultural imports (Mishra). One of the most representative images of Thai culture is in the airport in Bangkok, where travelers can view a “mythical exhibit of the Samudra manthan (churning of the ocean) that is directly influenced by Hindu mythological beliefs” (Bhattacharya). Of course, due to geographic proximity, maritime trade between India and Thailand began early in 1500 BCE, supporting heavy cultural and political influence both ways (Bhowmick). 

Given that “commerce, culture and connectivity are often cited as the three main pillars” of the relationship, it is logical that there is an ease of communication in contemporary times as well (Bhowmick). The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral is one example of modern ties, allowing landlocked areas access to the wider SEA market (Ao). Surprisingly, the COVID-19 period saw an all-time high trade (approx $15B USD) and an increase in labor market sharing (Ao). India’s Act East and Thailand’s Act West policies are very much in tune, spurred by the need for “Third World unity in tackling global challenges” such as development and climate change goals (Ao). As such, India and Thailand have clearly capitalized on their historical similarities and successfully brought their alliance into the modern age. 

Cambodia

Another unsurprising connection can be found in Cambodia. The Khmer kingdom was well known for its architecture and political infrastructure. It borrowed extensively from Indian culture, with strong roots in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy (Mehta). Religious influence was such that even modern day Buddhist priests still carry out “a host of Hindu rituals,”  and stories from Indian mythology remain pervasive and foundational (Mehta). Thus, there is significant research into the Angkor Empire and its economic, political, and cultural ties to ancient India -- many of which remain strong to this day (Mehta). 

Similar to Thailand, India-Cambodia contemporary relations have continuously been cordial. India was one of the first to recognize the new Cambodian government after the end of the Khmer Rouge regime (India-Cambodia, MEA). Additionally, India was a first-supporter in the demining operations led by the UN, and promptly responded to the government’s appeal to “undertake the conservation of the famous Angkor Wat temple during the period 1986 to 1993 at a cost of US$ 4 million, at a time when peace in the country was yet to be settled” (India-Cambodia, MEA). India went so far as to help build the “MGC Asian Traditional Textiles Museum in Siem Reap and offered training courses on conservation and preservation to the museum staff,” displaying a consistent drive to maintain relations with its “sister nation” (Vann and Heng). It has been repeatedly recommended that Cambodia meaningfully engage India and pursue ties based on its long standing relationship -- allowing for a decrease in Chinese dependence and a bolstering of ASEAN development (Vann and Heng).  

Philippines

The Philippines is often assumed to be geographically too removed from the spread of Indianization, and is “attributed to secondary influences rather than to direct penetration” -- as opposed to the levels seen in other countries (Churchill). However, the local Tagalog language (and unearthed artifacts) have been found to derive several terms and phrases from Sanskrit and other Indian languages (India-Philippines, MEA). Of course, the “localized version of Indian epic Ramayana (Maharadia Lawana) testif[ies] to the historical links between the two countries” (India-Philippines, MEA). Dispelling the idea of the nation being too far removed, (and as with other colonial narratives written by the west), 

“there can be no question that it was the systematic destruction of Filipino writings by the Spaniards…and not a non-existence of significant writings because of inadequate writing materials, which explains the absence of any surviving examples today“ (Churchill).

This, yet again, leads to the understanding that the Philippines is another nation within SEA that has long standing ties to India. 

This has been upheld in modern relations. Even as India focuses on its own development, it ensured humanitarian assistance to the Philippines -- especially during the 2006 avalanche and super typhoon (India-Philippines, MEA). In 2012, India “provided disaster relief assistance of $200,000 to the Philippines Government and $ 100,000 as disaster relief assistance following the October 2013 earthquake in Bohol,” followed by relief in 2013 -- and 2017 during the ISIS siege (India-Philippines, MEA). Even during the height of the pandemic in 2020, India provided around $250,000 USD in face masks for frontline workers (India-Philippines, MEA). 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the legacy of Indianization in Southeast Asia has enduring implications for modern political connections. The study of modern political relationships suggests that the historical ties forged continue to influence diplomatic and strategic alliances. Researching beyond contemporary geopolitics is in the long term interest of not only the involved parties, but the world as a whole; “new paradigms of pedagogy, policy, and research” are creating links between “India and Southeast Asia, perhaps contributing to unrealized innovative international policies” (Bhattacharya). Thus the insights gained offer valuable considerations for policymakers and scholars alike, emphasizing the need for a nuanced understanding of historical legacies in shaping SEA geopolitical realities.  Although China and the West have been the primary source of scrutiny and research,  India’s rapid growth and long-term ties to the SEA region need more observation. India by far has the highest potential for fostering alliances, drawing not only from Indianized cultural similarities but also from several contemporary instances wherein the relationship was strengthened. Furthermore, given the need for SEA to be taken “seriously” in the global context, creating a partnership with India as opposed to an imbalanced dynamic with other “superpowers” would be the best course of action -- leading to mutually beneficial end goals. 

References

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